As September approaches, thousands of children across the world are preparing to return to school. While for some this is part of their yearly routine, this is not the reality for everyone. Millions of children still lack access to education for various reasons, representing a significant violation of one of their most fundamental rights. However, initiatives around the world, including in Ireland, are increasingly seeking to transform education and make this right more effective.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights stated that “everyone has the right to education” and provides that primary education should be free and compulsory. It also recognises that education is about more than simply attending school: it should contribute to the development of the individual and promote respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.
This principle was subsequently given binding legal force through the ICESCR, which recognise the right of everyone to education and links it to the “full development of the human personality”. The Convention on the Rights of the Child reinforces these guarantees from a child-centred perspective by emphasising equal access, dignity, personal development and respect for human rights.
Yet recognising education as a right does not tell us everything about what States must actually do to make that right meaningful. The former UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education, Katarina Tomasevski, developed the "4 As" framework, which has become an important way of understanding the substance of the right to education. First, education must be available. States must ensure that functioning educational institutions exist and that primary education is free and compulsory. Education must be accessible.
No one should be excluded from education on discriminatory grounds. Accessibility therefore requires States to address barriers faced by marginalised groups. Education also has to be acceptable. It should respect human dignity and fundamental rights. Teaching should respect cultural and linguistic diversity and allow for appropriate freedom of educational choice. Finally, education must be adaptable.
This means that education cannot be treated as a one-size-fits-all system: it must evolve as societies change and accommodate learners with different backgrounds, abilities and needs. Ultimately, the right to education is about far more than simply having a school to attend. It requires education to be genuinely available, accessible, acceptable and capable of adapting to the people it is meant to serve. And while this right is now firmly recognised in international law, ensuring that everyone can enjoy it remains a significant challenge.
“Equal education does not necessarily mean giving every child the same thing.”
In the world, poverty remains one of the most significant barriers to education. Although supposedly free, education can still involve substantial indirect costs, including uniforms, books, and school supplies. These costs can make education inaccessible. Poverty can also push children into child labour, as their income becomes necessary to support their families. According to the ILO, approximately 138 million children between the ages of 5 and 17 are engaged in child labour worldwide.
Discrimination is another major obstacle. Children may be excluded from education because of their gender, ethnicity, religion, language, nationality or migration status. This can take particularly direct forms: for example, Roma children in parts of Europe have faced segregation and barriers to equal educational opportunities. In some countries, children who do not speak the dominant language may struggle to access education, while administrative requirements can prevent children from enrolling in school. These barriers are not confined to developing countries.
Access is also impossible when adequate educational infrastructure does not exist. Insufficient funding can mean that children have no school nearby, overcrowded classrooms, inadequate learning materials or too few qualified teachers. The existence of a school therefore does not necessarily mean that the right to education is being fulfilled. Finally, conflict and violence can destroy the very possibility of education. Schools may be damaged or destroyed. Children may also be forced to flee their homes, interrupting their education for months or years.
Education can therefore be threatened at every stage: a child may be unable to reach a school, unable to afford to attend it, discriminated against once they arrive, or prevented from learning because their school has been destroyed. The scale of these challenges can make the right to education appear unattainable. Yet it has been increasingly recognised that expanding access is not enough: education systems themselves need to be transformed. A significant effort came with the 2022 United Nations Transforming Education Summit, which placed education higher on the international political agenda.
Bangladesh, for example, has sought to raise the status of the teaching profession through initiatives including the institutionalisation of World Teachers' Day and measures aimed at improving teachers' working conditions and career development. Mauritius has responded to shortages of primary-school teachers by creating additional teaching positions and recruiting hundreds of trainee teachers. Others have focused on making education more inclusive.
Bahrain has introduced special education programmes into mainstream schools, accompanied by awareness-raising for teachers, administrative staff and students, allowing children with disabilities to learn alongside their peers. There are also efforts to make education more responsive to children's broader needs. Jordan, for instance, has integrated socio-emotional learning into its curriculum, recognising that education should not only provide academic knowledge but also equip children with skills that support their wellbeing and relationships.
Finally, some initiatives recognise that children themselves should have a voice in shaping education systems. Albania's National Youth Strategy 2022–2029 seeks to strengthen opportunities for young people, including marginalised and vulnerable groups, and institutionalise their participation in decisions affecting them. Making the right to education effective requires more than building schools. It requires investment, equality, qualified teachers, inclusive systems and meaningful participation from the people education is intended to serve.
“Education is a right, not a privilege reserved for those who can access it.”
Ireland has a relatively strong education system, but the existence of universal access does not mean that every child enjoys education on equal terms. Although education is formally free, families still face costs for uniforms, school supplies, voluntary contributions and digital devices. In its 2025 survey, Barnardos found that 54% of school parents were worried about meeting school costs. The Free Schoolbooks Scheme has been expanded to cover students in post-primary education, while the School Meals Programme has also been extended.
Inequality still affects educational opportunities. Children do not enter the education system from equal starting points. Socioeconomic disadvantage can affect attendance, educational outcomes and access to resources. In 2026, the Government launched a new DEIS Strategy to 2035 alongside DEIS Plus, providing €48 million in annual funding and additional resources to 121 schools facing the highest levels of disadvantage. The Government's STAR pilot programme, for example, sought to improve attendance, participation and school completion among Traveller and Roma students.
Finally, equal education does not necessarily mean giving every child the same thing. Children with disabilities and additional educational needs may require specialised teaching, accessible facilities or therapeutic support to participate on an equal basis. Ireland has expanded special education provision and introduced measures such as the Education Therapy Service. Budget 2026 also allocated additional funding to extend school-based therapy services.
In Ireland, the goal is now not simply to ensure that children have a school to attend, but that they can meaningfully participate in and benefit from education. However, continued inequalities show that making the right effective requires sustained investment and a focus on the children who face the greatest barriers. The right to education is widely recognised, but millions of children still face barriers preventing them from fully enjoying it. From global initiatives to reforms in Ireland, progress is being made, but ensuring education is truly accessible, inclusive and adaptable remains an ongoing challenge. Education is a right, not a privilege reserved for those who can access it.
“Making the right to education effective requires more than building schools. It requires investment, equality, qualified teachers, inclusive systems and meaningful participation from the people education is intended to serve.”
This article was written by Oréane Tater Videcoq, a student currently enrolled in the LLM programme ‘International Human Rights’ at the Irish Centre for Human Rights, University of Galway.
